CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background Information to the Study
The tourism sector globally continues to be a major source of livelihood and revenue for many individuals, corporate bodies and governments. The sector is projected to support over 370 million jobs globally by the year 2026 (Gomes, 2017). According to the United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) tourism accounted for approximately 4% of the global Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in 2020 (UNWTO, 2021). Tourism in many countries is highly entwined with the aspect of wildlife conservation. Wildlife-Based Tourism (WBT) during the onset and peak of the Covid-19 pandemic saw a drastic reduction in tourist visits globally (WNWTO, 2021). The United Nations Environmental Program (UNEP) notes that within that period, it led to shrinking of the tourism sector resulting in job losses and exposing wildlife to risks of no protection (UNEP, 2020). It is this observation that makes it imperative to examine the nexus between WBT and sustainable conservation of wildlife globally, more so, in Kenya.
For tourism based on wildlife as a key attraction to be sustainable, the conservation of wild biodiversity and habitats needs to be attained (Mwangi et al., 2022). However, accordingly, the loss of biodiversity has reached unprecedented levels since the last known previous mass extinction. This is worsened by the fact that United Nation’s (UN) 10-year plan to halt or slow down this historically unprecedented biodiversity loss, ecosystems and species decline in population and variety by 2020 was not achieved in almost all the areas the UN had envisioned (‘Biodiversity Faces Its Make-or-Break Year, and Research Will Be Key’, 2022). Thus it becomes imperative to determine those factors that contribute to the success of such ventures because they are currently facing serious challenges. As a case study, this study will do so by focusing at Ol Pejeta Conservancy in Laikipia County, Kenya.
Right from antiquity to the dawn of the industrial revolution in Europe, young men of nobility were highly encouraged to travel outside their home countries (Chaney, 2000). The phenomenon of tourism is envisioned by some scholars as a product arising from the contemporary social arrangements, which emanated from Europe in the 17th century (Walton, 2021). The advent of the industrial revolution saw the interest in tourism travels increase in Europe. It is from this era that tourism as we know it today starting taking root globally with the spread of industrial revolution and accelerated during the mid-20th century. The industrial revolution in brought a new type of consumption in terms tourism movements and expenditures in areas they visited (Şengel, 2021).
Tourism in many countries it is highly entwined with the aspect of wildlife conservation. In Brazil, Wildlife-Based Tourism (WBT) has had a significant impact on sustainable conservation of the environmental resources particularly wild flora and fauna (Stronza et al., 2019). In the USA, New Zealand, Australia and Canada, ecotourism has played a key role in development of conservation strategies, funding conservation efforts and resulting in organizational frameworks that have deference to local institutions and communities (Ferretti-Gallon et al., 2021). These global examples demonstrate the nexus of tourism with promoting sustainable conservation of wildlife. It is evident in Kenya where tourism employment and GDP are positively correlated (Kipkosgei, 2020).
According to the World Bank, WBT is a critical factor many governments can “leverage to grow their economies while protecting their biodiversity and meeting several Sustainable Development Goals” (SDG) (Damania, 2018). It incorporates tourism related activities in the sustainable conservation of wildlife species while providing a leeway for local communities to get economic benefits. In this way tourism on the global scene is a driver of socioeconomic development for many countries. In Africa, South Africa, Kenya, Tanzania Botswana and Namibia have been the leaders in promoting tourism based on wildlife as a product for attracting tourists. Tourism and wildlife conservation have a cyclic relationship.
Where wildlife is absent, in areas like Kruger National Park in South Africa (Ferreira & Harmse, 2014), Serengeti National Park in Tanzania (Kegamba et al., 2022) and the Masai Mara Game Reserve in Kenya (Bhandari, 2014) may not have attracted tourists. Likewise, the tourism provides a market for local curio products, generates revenue and encourages conservation of wildlife in many African countries (Kabiri, 2010). From the above, one can safely conclude that there is a symbiotic relationship between sustainable wildlife conservation and WBT. Secondly, such parks are in existence likely due to the benefits ecotourism generates to local communities and the national governments in terms of economic benefits in Kenya (Maiko, 2016). In that regard, protected areas that serve as wildlife conservancies constitute approximately 7% of the total land area in Kenya (Makindi, 2016). Furthermore, within this conservancies, 75% of the wildlife in the country are found which exist in many rural areas that have development challenges, scanty livelihood opportunities and limited resources (Ibid). Within this context of conservancies, that community-based biodiversity conservation provides a great chance of enhancing eco-tourism, within the framework of sustainable economic development.
1.1.1 Tourism Development in Africa
Tourism accounted for about 7% of the global GDP in 2016 (Rasool et al., 2021) and in Kenya it accounted for approximately 8.8% of the country’s GDP in 2016 (Maiko, 2016). Tourism in Africa in based on the contemporary world was emergent with European colonization of the continent (Sarmento & Rink, 2015). The early attraction of Africa as a tourist destination was anchored on the continent’s imagery related to “imperial explorations and expansions” (Ibid). In the 1930’s the growth of the aviation industry, development of the road networks within Africa, and growth of the hospitality industry have spurred tourism on the continent (Pirie, 2009). Tourism, in post-independent countries like Egypt, Morocco, Kenya and South Africa actively as a means to economic development. The WBT is centered on the concept of safari continues to be the epicenter of tourist attraction in Kenya, Botswana, South Africa, Tanzania and Zambia which is slowly metamorphosizing in trans-frontier border wildlife tourism (Hottola, 2009).
Sub-Saharan countries, from the survey of available literature, are heavily reliant in the safari-based concept of ecotourism and it has been the pillar of growth in tourism in African countries. Through legislative and policy formulations, these governments have established frameworks, that are inclusive of formation of national parks, game reserves and conservancies, that intend to conserve wildlife and provide alternative means of livelihoods for many local communities.
The idealization of game parks, reserves and sanctuaries beyond the concept of preservation marked a paradigm shift in the practice of conservation in Africa . This was due to the need to incorporate conservation efforts within the socio-economic fabric of local communities where they could derive benefits from conservation and advance the process to higher levels (Petursson & Vdeld 2017). In the course of this shifting in paradigm, the growth of community-based conservation practices became inherent features in the cyclic relationship between conservation and WBT in South Africa (Anthony, 2007), which is also the case in Kenya. In this way, the notion that poor communities within and in proximity of game parks, reserves and game sanctuaries benefit and participate in conservation to promote tourism (Coetzee & Nell, 2019).
1.1.2 Nexus of Wildlife Conservation and Tourism in Africa
In the of global trends in tourism, the sub-Saharan experience is basically anchored on wildlife conservation as a sustainable way of attracting tourists. In South Africa, Kenya, Botswana and Namibia, national parks have been established as official sites where flora and fauna are protected in conserving their existence for posterity (Akama et al., 2015). In Namibia, tourists are interested in witnessing use of ethno-knowledge and cultural practices in wildlife conservation approaches by local Khoikhoi and San communities (Indigenous Knowledge of Namibia, 2015). It should be noted that sometimes tourism considerations tend to override the interests of local communities and may lead to apathy with wild animals if local communities feel secluded from the advantages of the engagements (Morais et al., 2015). Tourism must be constructed in manner in which the local communities do not feel alienated from the benefits accruing from these eco-resources. The acquisition of new knowledge, in regard to promoting wildlife tourism and conservation, is aided by education that equips people with skills and information related to it.
1.1.3 Ol Pejeta Conservancy in Laikipia County, Kenya
The Ol Pejeta Conservancy is located in Laikia Cou1nty in central Kenya region, lying on the equator sandwiched between the Aberdare Ranges and Mount Kenya (Ol Pejeta Conservancy, 2016). It is situated to the west of Nanyuki town. The Ol Pejeta Conservancy covers an area of approximately 360 sq km and has been established as a Not-for-Profit wildlife conservancy (Ol Pejeta Conservancy in Nanyuki, 2021).
Ol Pejeta Conservancy dates back to the pre-colonial era when it established as cattle ranch by the White Settlers. In 2004, the ranch was facing dwindling fortunes in cattle rearing and was sold off to the UK based conservation organization known as Fauna and Flora International who had acquired financial assistance for the transaction from Arcus International (Ol Pejeta Conservancy, 2015). The Ol Pejeta Conservancy was then converted to a national land trust. The key objective of the establishment of the Ol Pejeta Conservancy was to provide socioeconomic support for the people residing in close proximity to it (Ol Pejeta Conservancy (Official Video 2021), 2021). This was also to guarantee that conservation of wildlife was in beneficial to the local communities through provision of health services, education and infrastructural development for posterity.
The conservancy seeks to develop an informed, knowledgeable and skilled local community that actively seeks to conserve wildlife for the benefit of realizing increased earnings from tourism. The key products in the conservancy are fauna and flora species that attract eco-tourist visitors to the region which technically translates to sustainable conservation for development. Tourism is a subset of tourism that entails travel to a natural area; involving local people; feeding economic profit into local environmental protection; and contributing to the maintenance of the local environment and species diversity through minimizing visitor impact and promoting tourist education (Needham 2006; Fennell 2003). Tourism as a component of the green economy is one of the fastest growing segments of the tourism industry, and focuses on environmental conservation, socioeconomic development and capitalist development. It is a subset of tourism aiming to benefit both livelihoods and the environment.
Wildlife–Based Tourism has been growing both in terms of prevalence and popularity globally (CREST 2016). The epitome of this was in 2017 when the United Nations declared the year as the International Year of Sustainable Tourism for Development (UNWTO 2017). In a way, this depicts the great importance accorded to tourism as a tool for sustainable conservation. With its immense contribution to the community in regard to revenue generation and community development, it is most likely that tourism will be a sure strategy for wildlife conservation in many nations across the world.
In the recent past, a number of wildlife organizations have focused on tourism as a means of promoting a sustainable environmental conservation. Ol Pejeta Conservancy is one of such organizations. This study will therefore attempt to explore tourism and assess its impact on sustainable environmental conservation. The study will specifically attempt to identify the parameters of tourism practiced in Ol Pejeta Conservancy, assess the impact of tourism on the environmental sustainability, examine the community involvement in sustainable wildlife conservation, and establish the role tourism plays in improving livelihoods at Ol Pejeta Conservancy.
The study will shed more light on tourism. It is anticipated that the findings of this study will be used to create more awareness about tourism besides using the insights gained from the study to better the tourism sector.
1.2 Statement of the Problem
The conservation of flora and fauna has been a key concern for the Kenyan government over the years. The country has in the past been grappling with unsustainable game hunting and poaching that threatened the existence of some wildlife species like the elephant, endangered rhinos, eland, selected bird species and a variety of plants. While these species play a role in the sustainability of ecosystem health through nature’s mechanism, they also have value in the economic sense from the perspective of many local communities through tourist related benefits.
The formation of national parks, game reserves and conservancies provides a means through which sustainable conservation of wildlife species can occur. This is heavily dependent in a cyclic pattern with tourism that encourages visitors to tour the places and view the fauna and flora. It further requires retaining the ecosystem health and habitats in order to allow the wildlife to regenerate for posterity These are the key fundamental aspects that defines the tourism-wildlife symbiotic relationship in many African countries like Kenya. It is on this basis, and the need to provide alternative livelihoods for local communities, that the Ol Pejeta Conservancy came into existence in Laikipia County in Kenya.
In view of the aforesaid, this study’s research problem is associated with the need to identify those peculiar factors related to tourism as a key drivers that encourages conservation in the Ol Pejeta Conservancy. The question of how tourism impacts on sustainable wildlife conservation based on the Ol Pejeta Conservancy ecotourism model has not been well documented and researched. This study is a response to that problem by seeking to determine the facts that promote wildlife conservation through tourism
1.3 Objectives of the Study
The objectives of the study are as follows.
1.3.1 Broad Objective
The general objective of the study is to identify the impacts of Wildlife-Based Tourism on conservation practices used by communities within and in close proximity to Ol Pejeta Wildlife Conservancy.
1.3.2 Specific Objectives
The specific objectives of the study are;
- To determine how Ol Pejeta Conservancy contributes to wildlife conservation in Laikipia County.
- To examine the attitudes and perceptions of local communities towards tourism as a factor in conservation at Ol Pejeta Conservancy.
- To establish how wildlife-based tourism as a source of livelihood contributes to the sustainable conservation of Ol Pejeta Conservancy by the local community.
- To evaluate the role of wildlife-based tourism in environmental education of local communities for sustainable conservation of wildlife at Ol Pejeta Conservancy.
1.4 Research Questions
The study will be guided by the following research questions. - How does Ol Pejeta Conservancy contribute to wildlife conservation in Laikipia County?
- What are the attitudes and perceptions of local communities towards tourism as a factor in conservation at Ol Pejeta Conservancy Laikipia County?
- How does wildlife-based tourism as a source of livelihood contributes to the sustainable conservation of Ol Pejeta Conservancy by the local community in Laikipia County?
- What is the role of wildlife-based tourism in environmental education of local communities for sustainable conservation of wildlife at Ol Pejeta Conservancy in Laikipia County?
1.5 Assumptions of the Study - WBT has measurable effects on the conservation strategies and participation of local communities in the efforts of Ol Pejeta Conservancy in Laikipia County.
- WBT has observable effects on the livelihood of local community which positively encourages their contribution to wildlife conservation at Ol Pejeta Conservancy in Laikipia County.
- Experience in wildlife conservation and WBT has resulted in environmental education for local communities for sustainable eco-practices for development at Ol Pejeta Conservancy in Laikipia County.
1.6 Scope and Limitations of the Study
The study will be confined to Ol Pejeta Conservancy in Laikipia County. National parks and game reserves will not be included in this study. It therefore follows that, the generalizations that can be drawn from the study, may not be applicable to other conservancies or other regions.
1.7 Significance of the Study
The study findings will be beneficial to the academia. This is because they will be a welcome addition to the existing body of knowledge that seeks to understand the nexus of tourism and its application and impact to sustainable conservation of wildlife species in Ol Pejeta Conservancy. Secondly, the study will recommend areas of policy concerns that will improve the conservancy’s objective of harnessing tourism and wildlife conservation for sustainable development for the local communities living within its proximity.
In relation to the Ol Pejeta Conservancy, the findings of the study will inform decision and policy makers on the best approaches that yield the highest positive impact in sustainable conservation of wildlife, for the benefit of the local communities. This will also guide the engagements the conservancy uses in tapping on the power of tourism using wildlife as a strategic tool in attracting them. Secondly, the legislative issues dealing with wildlife conservation on private conservancies may be informed by the findings of the study both at county and national levels.
The findings of the study will also provide a means of understanding and incorporating local communities into conservation efforts. This is by determining the benefits that tourism accrues to the livelihoods of local communities, which in term informs their participation in conservation efforts. Furthermore, the study will document the strategies and benefits of that local communities within the proximity of Ol Pejeta Conservancy derive from it. These may be replicated, if possible, to other conservancies, game parks and reserves in promotion conservation of wildlife in Kenya.
1.8 Definition of Key Terms
Conservancy: This is a secluded piece of land established for the purposes of undertaking conservation activities aimed at restoring, preserving and protecting the existence of wildlife species for posterity.
Livelihood: This is the means of support or subsistence through which people are able to get income and resources that enable someone to meet their needs. It is synonymous with occupation, work, or employment (Livelihood Definition and Meaning, 2022)
Sustainability: In regard to wildlife conservation, the term entails the ability to utilize flora and fauna, and enjoy the benefits accruing from their existence in the contemporary world without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs from the existence of these resources.
Tourism: Tourism is a social, cultural and economic phenomenon which entails the movement of people to countries or places outside their usual environment for personal or business/professional purposes, related to tourism-based activities, some of which imply tourism expenditure (United Nations World Trade Organization, 2017).
Wildlife Conservation: Wildlife conservation is the preservation and protection of animals, plants, and their habitats (National Wildlife Federation, 2022). This is done with the purpose of enhancing the continuity of native and endangered species, acts as a source of income for communities and governments through tourism.
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Chapter Overview
This chapter will discuss key concepts in this study, review critical literature related to the study, identify research gaps and anchor the discussion within the existing body of knowledge relating to wildlife conservation, tourism, sustainable development and livelihoods. Further the chapter intends to operationalize key variables, present the theoretical and conceptual frameworks used in the study.
2.1 The Concept of Wildlife Conservation and Tourism
Africa is endowed with diverse flora and fauna species and is home to nearly 2,000 key Biodiversity Areas that are critical in supporting “the world’s most diverse and abundant large mammal populations” (Lindsey et al., 2020). The African continent, particularly sub-Saharan Africa is home to the Big Five, namely elephants, rhinoceros, lions, buffaloes and leopards which have for a long term been a key attraction for the safari game. In relation to that, the realization that wildlife is essential to boost tourism both domestic and foreign tourists has indirectly been due to issue of improving the livelihoods of local communities living in close proximity to wildlife protected areas (Makindi, 2016). In a nutshell, wildlife conservation is the “preservation and protection of animals, plants and their habits” for purposes of ensuring future generations can enjoy the benefits of the natural world (National Wildlife Federation, 2022).
Conservation of wildlife must be done in accordance with a proper understanding of how species interact with each other, and with the natural environment in creating balanced ecosystems. For example, conservation of wildlife must be done with a thorough understanding of animal behaviors such as migrations and hibernation, seed germination and pollination, and host of other biological related world factors that influence these natural events (National Wildlife Federation, 2022). It is on this basis that this study seeks to identify wildlife education related knowledge of local residents living in close proximity to Ol Pejeta Conservancy that promotes the cyclic relationship between tourism and wildlife conservation.
In terms of wildlife and wildlands benefits to African-based tourism, this contributes over US$ 29 billion annually to African economies while at the same time creating employment for more than 3.6 million people (World Travel and Tourism Council, 2019). Furthermore, tourism significantly gives many African governments the justification for engaging in wildlife protection initiatives due to the benefits accruing to government revenues, foreign exchange earnings, diversifies and enhances local communities economies and supports livelihoods (Ibid).
2.2 The Contribution of Conservancies to Global Efforts of Wildlife Conservation.
An empirical study findings conducted in Brazil showed that conservation of natural forest habitats in the Amazon was being adversely affected by deforestation. The study pointed out that deforestation was caused by “livestock farming, agriculture, logging, rural settlements, protected areas and in some extent tourism” (Gazoni & Brasileiro, 2018). According to these researchers, they identified inverse correlation link between “tourism and annual deforestation rates in the biome” (Ibid). What these signifies is that tourism if allowed to be practiced irresponsibly may not have the advantage of securing and protecting wildlife and their natural habitats if not done carefully. It should be noted that co-existence of humans and wildlife has in the recent past portended disastrous consequences to existence of wildlife in game parks and conservancies. Another case of poor wildlife protection is in the Yellowstone National Park in the United States. In the early 1800s, settler expansion westwards in the United States caused decimation of predators in the park in order to save “livestock populations” (National Park Service, U.S Department of the Interior, 2021). This was due to lack of ecosystem knowledge and misunderstanding of wildlife behaviors in relation to their interaction with their natural environment. This cases exemplify the need to have wildlife protection officers and communities living in close proximity to wildlife having the right information that leads to meaningful and sustainable conservation of wildlife in such conservancies. This study seeks to determine if the local community, workers and wildlife protection officers within the proximity of Ol Pejeta Conservancy have been properly educated on the conservation practices that best promote its cyclic relationship with tourism.
An empirical study conducted in the Yellowstone National Park in the USA, the researchers suggest that tourist as users of protected areas must pay the cost of maintenance of the conservancies based on the principle of fairness and cooperation (Middleton et al., 2020). In the study they urge that payments from park users as visitors entrance fee can be harnessed as a means of cooperation between park management costs, and large scale conservation (Ibid). The key aim is to secure large land areas for conservation of biodiversity for economic advantages and for posterity. The most important element is to make the conservancies self-reliant in managing their biodiversity and habitat protection activities sustainably while creating value to its employees, government and local communities.
A study covering Tanzania and Ghana demonstrated that perceptions provide a very critical prism for examining the performance of conservation parks whose response will be development of policies that reflect the mind set of local populations close to them (Abubakari & Mwalyosi, 2020). According these researchers, the opinions of park-adjacent communities may vary in different countries but governance issues are catalysts of the opinions formation about the parks. However, the study further notes land scarcity may be catastrophic if leads to resentment of protected wildlife and related habitats by adjacent communities. This study is anchored on this knowledge in seeking to determine the same in relation to the existence of Ol Pejeta Conservancy and local communities, employees, wildlife protection officers and government officials in Laikipia County.
In Kenya, an empirical study done at the Nairobi national park confirmed the park’s role in “biodiversity conservation, its socio-cultural and economic values” and the inherent challenges that it faces in achieving its social-economic mandate with biodiversity conservation (Mwangi et al., 2022). It therefore makes one to be cognizant of the fact that the ideal roles of a national park or any such conservancy needs to be attained, management threats addressed and the governing policies of such conservancies need to be effective, efficient and economic for the objective realization of their mandates
2.4 The Link between Wildlife Conservation, Community Livelihoods and Sustainable Development Goals
At independence Kenya had an approximate population of about 7 million people who have reached about 52 million by 2019 (References United Nations Population Division, 2019). This population growth has needs and demands that need to be met. The Kenya government, like many African governments, must diversify from the traditional based agrarian economies to industrial and information technology based industries. As diversification increases to create employment and sustain people livelihoods, tourism needs to be harnessed and some of the key pillars are wildlife/ecotourism, business, conference, sports and leisure tourism among other areas.
Wildlife conservation is pursued by many governments in order to create employment opportunities, increase foreign earnings and protect wildlife existence for posterity (Kabiri, 2010; Makindi, 2016; World Travel and Tourism Council, 2019). A study conducted in Namibia showed that Namibia has a very strong commitment to the protection of wildlife as a means of encouraging sustainable tourism for development. This is based on the country’s rich heritage of wildlife biodiversity, sociocultural traditions and landscapes that favor sustainable development through proper conservation and harnessing of its biodiversity wildlife species (Dowling & Christof, 2021). From the findings of Dowling & Pforr, it is important to note that the benefits from wildlife conservation and tourism must be sustainable for it to have any benefit to future generations.
In a comparative study conducted in the United Kingdom and South Africa, it was established that the geopolitical social context of traditional based-livelihoods sources despite being fishing communities, they have not yet explored the potential of diversifying into tourism as a sustainable alternative (Kimbu et al., 2022). What this studies exemplify is that tourism can provide a means of communities engaging into other non-traditional activities that can support them like the case in Namibia (Dowling & Christof, 2021; Morais et al., 2015), Nairobi National Park in Kenya (Mwangi et al., 2022) and Kruger National Park in South Africa (Ferreira & Harmse, 2014) among others.
In the Sino-Vietnamese border, it has been established that tourism is a new novel way of engaging industrial poverty reduction in rural areas in border areas (Xu et al., 2022). The aim is to increase household earnings for rural farmers in rural areas through diversification from agriculture to tourism. In Ghana another study showed that harassing of local people due to tourism may have adverse effects in securing their livelihoods in the event a place gets to be a declared notable tourist site or wildlife conservancy for tourist promotion (Forson, 2022). It is this kind of actions that may lead to resentment of tourists and tourism in hindering it becoming a source of livelihood for local people. In the face of the above mentioned issues, the need to examine the relationship in perceptions, community livelihoods and well-being of individuals due to wildlife-based tourism and conservation needs to be examined. A survey of available literature does not demonstrate this has been done in relation to Ol Pejeta Conservancy in Laikipia County.
2.5 Examining the Role of Environmental Education in Sustainable Conservation of Wildlife for Tourism
2.6 Theoretical Framework
This study will be guided by two theoretical models which are given as follows;
2.6.1 Ecological Modernization Theory
This theory is anchored on the premises that the policy of sustainable development is to be undertaken with the expectation of a reciprocally supportive integration of environmental health, and quality into economic development, within the exploitative and regulatory frameworks within communities (Hanf, 2003). This theory emerged in the early 1980s and the proponents include Martin Jänicke, Udo E. Simonis and Joseph Huber who have been acknowledged as the key proponents of the theory (Mol & Sonnenfeld, 2000). The key tenet of the theory is that ecological modernization has a connection to environmental reworking of economic growth and industrial development where the economic aspirations and ecological considerations can be merged. Accordingly, by taking that into consideration, the theory can help provide a means for enhancing economic productivity by increasing wildlife conservation for sustainable development based on the Ol Pejeta Conservancy model.
The theory will provide a prism for examining the wildlife conservation and tourism innovations from an environmental management and sustainable economic model. The model also provides a way in which the aspect of investigating perceptions, opinions and attitudes of the respondents towards conservation practices and management of Ol Pejeta Conservancy has a role in it enhancing a healthy cyclic relationship with WBT. The theory places humans at the center of sustaining ecological changes or conditions that promote environmental conservation. The theory helps favor business operation and management models that merge economics, environment and society by placing a strong emphasis on sustainability (Singh, 2019). While this may be difficult to achieve, sustainable conservation of Ol Pejeta Conservancy wildlife ensures the wildlife biodiversity as a business product that attracts tourist remains, and as it exists, allows the management of the conservancy to use them in generating revenues and other benefits for meeting their conservation business models and accruing benefits to local communities.
2.7 Conceptual Framework
2.8 Summary of Research Reviewed Literature and Research Gaps
2.9 Operationalization of Research Variables
CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.0 Chapter Overview
This chapter purports to present the research design and a description of the study site, target population, sample size determination and sampling strategies, data collection tools and procedures for collecting data, how the data will be analyzed and ethical considerations as follows;
3.1 Research Design
The study will use cross-sectional case study design to collect data from a cross-section of respondents at a specific point in time (Claybaugh, 2020). This is because the study will also be based on using Ol Pejeta Conservancy as a case study.
3.2 Study Site
The study will be conducted in Ol Pejeta Conservancy (OPC) which is a non-governmental organization incorporated in Kenya whose objective is to promote wildlife conservation, provide a sanctuary for great apes and endangered animal species while supporting community development programs for the benefit rural communities living within its proximity (Ol Pejeta Conservancy, 2016). The conservancy manages a land area of approximately 110,000 acres (445 km2) covering nearly 4% of Laikipia County in Central Kenya and is effectively divided into two sections by the Ewaso Nyiro River (Ol Pejeta Conservancy, 2015; Ol Pejeta Conservancy in Nanyuki, 2021).
The conservancy is home to the critically endangered black rhinos, near extinct Southern White rhinos, critically endangered or extinct in the Wild Northern White rhinos, vulnerable lions, endangered Lelwel Hartebeest, Beisa Oryx, vulnerable elephants and the endangered African wild dogs (Ol Pejeta Conservancy in Nanyuki, 2021). Other species include the vulnerable cheetahs, near threatened leopards and other small cats including civets, caracal and serval cats and the endangered Grevy’s zebra (Ol Pejeta Conservancy (Official Video 2021), 2021). Open grasslands forms the main habitat for Lelwel hartebeest covering a third of the 110,000 acres conservancy with the rest being woodland and bush land.
3.3 Target Population
3.4 Sample Size Determination
The study will use the sample size determination table proposed by Glenn Israel in 1992.
3.5 Sampling Strategies
3.6 Data Collection Tools
The study will use interview schedules in collecting data from respondents. The interview schedule is a questionnaire that is administered by the researcher or subject research assistants in collecting data from the respondents where the research team records the responses in the questionnaires (Quad, 2016). The interview schedule is appropriate for this study because the researcher wants to hold in-depth interviews with respondents and seek to get their views on a wide range of subjects related to the objectives of the study. The interview schedule will have both structured and unstructured questions that will seek to elicit both qualitative ad quantitative feedback from respondents (Elazia, 2019).
3.6.1 Pilot Study
The study will conduct a pilot phase to determine the appropriateness of the research tools and determine how reliable they are in measuring the research variables. Secondly, it will help the researcher to adequately plan the research logistics, and the resources required to implement a full successful study during the data collection stage (In, 2017). Pilot studies are critical in gauging how the study will be conducting and training research assistants on the procedures, research tools and data collection techniques in a customized way to a specific research (Malmqvist et al., 2019).
3.6.2 Reliability of Research Tools
To ensure reliability of the instruments, the researcher will conduct a pretest in Lewa Wildlife Conservancy. The Lewa Wildlife Conservancy is located in northern Kenya. It was formed in 1995. It is a wildlife sanctuary incorporating the Ngare Ndare Forest and covering over 62,000 acres. The test re-test analysis will be conducted on the questionnaires in the pilot phase of the study.
Reliability in social research is concerned with ensuring that a research instrument actually measures what it was meant to measure and is dependable (Kerlinger, 1973). It provides an assurance that when different people use the same instrument they will get the same results despite difference in time and space (Matheson, 2019). In the pilot phase, Test-Re-test method the reliability measure will be based on the coefficient of stability (Data Analysis – Pearson’s Correlation Coefficient, 2019). This will ensure that the measuring instruments used in the research are reliable and consistent over the period of time they will be used in the study.The study will undertake the Test-Re-Test Analysis on SPSS (version 26). The Test-Re-test methodw will require the researcher to administrate 20 questionnaires twice to the same group of respondents within in a 21 day period (Matheson, 2019; Phelan & Wren, 2002). To demonstrate reliability of the research instruments, a pearson correlation coefficient measure of 0.70 or above will be sufficient to demonstrate the research tools are reliable. This is in line with the submissions statement that evidence of reliability is proved when a measure of above 0.7 is achieved (Bardhoshi and Erford, 2017).
3.6.3 Validity of Research Tools
Validity is the ability of a research instrument to measure a variable it was anticipated to measure and give an accurate representation of the features of the phenomenon which it deliberately intends to describe, explain and theorize (Njoroge, 2014). Content validity will be safeguarded by ensuring that research experts in the form of research supervisors assigned to guide the research provide their expert input in the designing and construction of the research tools (Elazia, 2019). These research supervisors to guide the researcher will be assigned to the student by Moi University.
3.7 Data Collection Strategies
The researcher will first seek permission to collect data by presented her proposal to the Ethics and Research Review Board of Moi University for ethical approval to conduct the study. Once clearance has been obtained, the researcher will then present a letter of introduction to the relevant authorities at Ol Pejeta Conservancy in order to interview the employees and other relevant parties within the conservancy in meeting the objectives of the research questions. Secondly, the researcher will identify any government official and community members who may have pertinent information in answering the research questions and personally introduce herself to them. Once the formalities of getting clearance to interview various respondents within the conservancy is obtained, the researcher will personally explain to the target respondents the objectives of the study, and provide clear information that is truthful, honest, and without misrepresenting facts or use of coercion, seek their informed consent to involve them as research respondents in the study.
The respondents will be required to sign a consent form to show that they are willing to be participants in the study. This will the facilitate the administration of interview schedules to them. Each respondent will be interviewed and their responses will be recorded on the questionnaires. Respondents who demonstrate that they are proficient enough to self-administrate the questionnaires which will be in English language will be allowed to fill the questionnaires on their own.
The completed interview schedules and questionnaires will be checked for accuracy and then edited in the field. The data will then be captured in Ms Excel and coded and transferred to SPSS software (version 25) for undertaking analytical procedures and tests. The results of the findings will then be compiled in a report and presented as a research thesis to Moi University. The questionnaires will be stored and terminated in accordance with the research guidelines and procedures Moi University.
3.8 Data Analysis
The responses from the respondents will be coded and input made into SPSS software (version 25). This will then be subjected to statistical tests that will examine the significance of the relationship between the variable of interest in the study. The study seeks to establish the existence of significant linear relationships between the variables while at the same time analyze the significance of the associations between the independent and dependent variables using chi-square test and Multivariate Logistic Regression Analysis. The Pearson’s Coefficient Test will be used to determine the existence of significance linear relationship between wildlife-based tourism and sustainable conservation. Any measure of above 0.5 will be considered significant between the variables.
In examining the effect between the association of wildlife-based tourism (independent) on sustainable conservation (dependent) at Ol Pejeta Conservancy, will be determined using the Chi-square tests. Any variable with a p-value of below 0.2 in the univariate analysis will be subjected to further multivariate logistic regression analysis to identify determinants of sustainable conservation from the wildlife-based tourism variables of the study. The variable characteristics in the study will be adjusted in this analytical model to control for confounding factors in the study. The findings of the analysis will be reported as odds ratios with an error threshold of 5% (or 95% confidence interval) for both the crude and the adjusted models. Findings that will be considered significant are those with a p-value of <0.05.
The results of the study will then be compiled and presented as a research thesis in accordance with the examination rules of Moi University.
3.9 Ethical Considerations
The study will seek ethical approval by seeking clearance to conduct the study from Moi University Ethics and Research Review Board which is an affiliate of NACOSTI. Once that clearance is sort, then the study can commence.
The researcher will explain the aim of the research to the respondents and ascertain that they understand their role in the best way possible using honest and presentation of correct and true facts relating to the study to them.. The respondents will be well informed of the purpose of the research and their role before being asked to be participants, consequently involving them in the study after obtaining their informed consent.
The identity of the respondents will continue to be safeguarded and the information they will be used only and only for the purposes of the research, and will not be disclosed to any third party whatsoever. Confidentiality of the respondents be safeguarded by ensuring that no name of respondents appears on any questionnaire or their personal contacts such as email and telephone numbers et cetera. The data will be coded and stored in SPSS software (Version 20) without including personal details that can be used to identify the respondents. Children will not be interviewed in the research and the respondents will be required to append their signatures on the consent form (See Appendix 2) as proof that they will not have been coerced or duped into being participants. This will be guaranteed by ensuring that that they are duly informed about the intentions and purposes of the research.
All obligations agreed upon by the respondents will be honored immediately at the conclusion of the specific activity to which they had entitlements. The relevant permission to carry the research will be sought from Moi University to conduct the research.
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